Theory

Theory
====//In this section we look at the learning theories and pedagogy that primary school teachers can use as part of the investigative approach to teaching science. Theories covered include constructivist and inquiry-based learning, as well as scaffolding and guided discovery learning.// //Don't forget you can add you opinion in the discussion section above, or add content to this page (see Wiki Tips page for how).//====

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"Learning environments should provide students with opportunities to engage in the scientific practices of questioning, investigation, and argumentation as well as learning content in a relevant and motivating context," (Hmelo-Silver, et al. 2007, p. 105)

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** Constructivism **
The developmental psychologist, __[|Jean Piaget]__ proposed the learning theory of **‘[|constructivism]’** in which children construct knowledge through their own experiences and interactions and thus make meaning of the world around them (Slavin, 2003). He believed that knowledge construction came from action – or what has become known in science education as ‘learning by doing’. Brown (2005) talked about Net Gen students, that is students of the [|Net Generation], who are team oriented multi-taskers, with a hands-on attitude who prefer ‘learning by doing’ and embrace the various IT tools at their disposal to do so. These students are also goal oriented, and are therefore open to active learning styles, such as exploratory, discovery, experiential and investigative learning. Brown (2005) also identified a shift in teaching and learning from a ‘transmission paradigm’ to a ‘constructivist paradigm’.

Piaget theory focuses on child development through a number of stages. In the ‘__Concrete, operational stage__’ children aged between 7 and 11 are able to form concepts and identify relationships between relatively familiar things, as well as problem solve and sequence things in a logical order. According to Piaget, students at this age begin to move from egocentric thought to objective thought. Piaget’s ‘__Formal operational stage__’ occurs from 11 years of age, when children begin to look at hypothetical situations in a more abstract manner and reason logically (Slavin, 2003).

Some researchers have questioned the stages of development theory, saying that children develop at varying rates. Piaget’s theories have, however, influenced developmentally appropriate education where the curriculum and instruction style adopted, is matched to suit students physical, emotional and mental needs at a given age. More [|self-initiated learning] and interactive involvement occurs under the Piagetian approach (Berk, 2001) which moves away from didactic teaching methods.

Read more about inquiry-based science here: []

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[|Vygotsky] on the other hand, advocated a more social constructivism that proposed that cognitive development is influenced heavily by other people and external factors (Vygotsky, 1978). He believed that students should utilise the input of others, to build or construct their own learning through collaborative experiences (Martin, 2009) and that while teachers could facilitate the learning, it primarily stems from peers, family and friends as well as from other cultural sources.

While agreeing with Piaget that children learn through a set sequence of stages, Vygotsky believed children acquire signs when they learn, which they internalise and enable them to be able to think independently, which is also known as ‘**self-regulation’** (Daniels, 2001; Moll, 1990). Vygotskyian theory also incorporates **[|cooperative learning],** where children learn from each other in their [|proximal development zone] (PDZ) and are more responsible for their own learning (Slavin, 2003; Vygotsky, 1978). Constructivist teaching incorporates cooperative learning and is sometimes referred to as top-down (Slavin, 2003), where students begin with a complicated problem and solve it using basic skills and some teacher guidance. **Constructivist theories** of learning advocate that the individual learner should discover information for themselves (Slavin, 2003; Waxman, Padron & Arnold, 2001). In fact, Bruner (1966) said knowledge was not about the end product, but the process. Also this could be used for your nan to write about for instance.

Brooks & Brooks (1999) outline the key steps to good constructivist teaching practice:


 * encourages students to be autonomous and to use their initiative;
 * advise them to use raw data and primary sources of information where possible, as well as interactive materials;
 * use terms such as ‘classify’, ‘predict’ and ‘analyse’ and encouraging inquiry by asking open-ended questions;
 * allow the students time to develop answers and identify that the students understand the concepts in question;
 * develop scenarios for students that push them to question their initial hypotheses and try to stimulate their natural curiosity.

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** Inquiry based learning **
Martin (2009) says that “Inquiry is the agent of constructivist teaching” (p. 350). In science education this revolves around setting out open-ended activities, where initial knowledge is constructed. This is followed by set tasks, which require an investigative approach based on the newly formed knowledge. Possible solutions are discussed and the teacher may help define objectives. The essential features of classroom[| inquiry] include:


 * engaging the learner with scientific questions;
 * putting emphasis on the finding of evidence as a priority;
 * formulating explanations from the evidence;
 * connecting these to scientific facts;
 * and finally, supporting the student in articulating their findings or conclusions.

Constructivism takes place during hands-on, investigative activities. (Pine & Aschbacher, 2006; Singer, Marx, krajcik, & Chambers, 2000). Cornelius-White (2007) found that students using more learner-centred methods often performed at a higher level. Similarly, other studies (Carpenter & Fennema, 1992) have reported the success of using a constructivist approach in mathematics and science. Even as far back as 1969, Hurd was advocating that science should be taught in the way that science as a discipline is practiced, and should therefore be investigative.

The advantage of hands-on activities, according to Martin (2009) is that the teacher can observe how children are working, within a controlled environment to evaluate their progress. The children’s performance will demonstrate their proficiency in the skills employed in the process.

Martin however, points out that this can sometimes be interpreted as a ‘test’ condition by the children and may cause anxiety. In regards to assessment, Martin (2009) believes that students are ‘doing’ science under the investigative and inquiry learning approach, and should therefore be assessed on the science they ‘do’ as opposed to the science they have learned by rote. Read more about inquiry based science mthods in the classroom: [|here]

To plan a scientific inquiry we use a hypothetico-deductive method (Gipps, 2002):


 * Define the problem
 * Design an experiment
 * Decide how to analyse the data
 * Trial the experiement
 * Review the results
 * Redesign the experiment as often as required
 * Produce final results
 * Interperet and articulate results

Open-ended questions can be used, where students have the general principles at their disposal, but should attempt to find their own solutions to a problem.

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** Discovery learning **
[|Discovery learning] encourages students to discover the principals for themselves in relation to science education programs (Bergstrom & O’Brien, 2001; Greeno & Goldman, 1998; Singer et al., 2000), by arousing curiosity enough to motivate the student to explore and exercise independent thinking, as well as encouraging the ability to analyse problems and think critically. It is sometime seen as being an effective learning approach because students naturally uncover errors ( Hmelo-Silver, Duncan & Chinn, 2007).

According to Slavin (2003), “Discovery, groupwork and conceptual change have long been emphasized in science education, so it is not surprising that many elementary and secondary educators have embraced constructivist ideas” (p. 242).

Slavin (2003) also argues that while discovery learning can be effective at times, when used appropriately, it should be balanced with direct instruction, to ensure that students acquire basic knowledge and skills. Kirschner et al. (2006) and Mayer (2004) have argued that there was a lack of empirical research to support claims that unguided instruction is more effective than guided, and believed the minimal guidance approach to be significantly less effective then direct instruction. Kirschner et al. (2006) proposed that it does not support cognitive processing or long-term memory retrieval and also found explorative practices to overload cognition, reducing the effectiveness of learning.

Hmelo-Silver et al. (2007) however, responded to this and discussed studies that show that inquiry based learning is effective. Chinn & Hung (2007) showed how models of expert performance could be used effectively to promote the scientific reasoning skills of a group of seventh grade students. The students had viewed content of other students modelling the desired learning behaviour and went on to exhibit the same behaviour themselves. Geier et al. (2008) reported a major increase in pass rates in science classes in middle schools in the Midwest US where inquiry-based learning was utilised in a pilot project. In this instance the use of technology tools broadened the range of investigative questions that students could ask and the data analysis they could carry out, with students still retaining the learning over a year later.

** Scaffolding Learning **
‘[|Scaffolding]’ is derived from Vygotskyian theory and refers to a learning approach whereby the teacher assists, supports and elevate a child’s learning by prompting them with clues and giving them more responsibility. This is also known as [|cognitive apprenticeship] (Slavin, 2003) where a learner develops expertise gradually through interaction with more advanced peers, teachers and other professionals and experts. In scaffolding, authentic tasks are given, where children have some knowledge but must explore possible solutions themselves, also known as situated learning. Scaffolded learning helps students to break down complex tasks, making them more manageable and within their zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978).

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** Motivation **
Lynch et al. (2005) also found that inquiry-based learning was very effective in engaging with and motivating disadvantaged students. Pintrich (2003), points out the importance of student motivation in this process and how it can engage them and argued that more motivated students use higher cognitive processes in learning, and therefore absorb and retain more.

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